Unlocking the power of emotion in L2 Spanish: a study of verbs of affection instruction

This study explores one of the most important research lines in the field of Applied Linguistics: the teaching and learning of a second language (L2), and more specifically, of L2 Spanish. Spanish is a rapidly growing language, with a user base that has increased to 591 million, 6 million more than in 2020, according to the latest annual El español en el mundo (Instituto Cervantes, 2021). Spanish is thus becoming one of the most in-demand languages and this requires effective teaching. Through the analysis of seven L2 Spanish textbooks, we aim to examine the theoretical approach underlying the explanations of verbs of affection in Spanish (e.g., me fastidia [‘it bothers me’] , me encanta [‘I love’]), as this grammatical construction is complex for a non-native speaker. Based on the findings, this investigation endeavors to provide pedagogical illustrations of how cognitive linguistics can be an advantageous method in teaching and learning psych verbs. The results of the study indicate that while all teaching materials are based on the classical communicative paradigm, none of them provide a cognitive perspective for the instruction of psych verbs in the early stages of learning or across the entire spectrum of emotions. This disregard for grammatical meaning and systematic treatment of these linguistic forms results in a reduced focus on their formal aspects, neglecting the changes in meaning that occur based on the focus on the stimulus or experiencer. This approach to teaching emotions grammar is viewed as mechanical and artificial.


INTRODUCTION
As a discipline, applied linguistics concerns itself with the practical applications of linguistic theory and research (Cook, 2003;Kayi-Aydar, 2019;Schmitt, 2013;). Its focus encompasses the language needs of both individuals and society (Ellis & Larsen-Freeman, 2006), as well as the development of methods and materials (Riazi, 2016). The origins of applied linguistics can be traced back to the structuralist approach to linguistics, which emerged in the early 20th century (cf. Kramsch, 2014). In the 1960s, the field began to shift its focus towards language education and acquisition (Grabe, 2010). Since that time, applied linguistics has undergone significant evolution and expansion. Today, it is a multidisciplinary field that incorporates theories and research from a range of fields and its purview embraces a variety of languagerelated topics, including language policy and planning (Baldauf, 1994;Hornberger, 2020), language assessment (Green, 2013), language disorders and therapy (Sidtis, 2012), or language learning and teaching (Kramsch, 2000;Nicholas & Starks, 2014)), among others.
With regard to this latter, and, more specifically to second language (L2) teaching and learning, this subfield has focused on understanding the most effective methods for helping instructors teach and individuals acquire new languages (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2013). Research has demonstrated that learning an L2 can improve cognitive skills such as problem-solving and critical thinking and can also enhance social and intercultural competence (Bley-Vroman, 1990;Lasagabaster, 2008;Makhmudov, 2020;Rezaei et al., 2011). As such, L2 education has the potential to contribute to both individual and societal development (Abdullaev, 2021). As the demand for L2 education continues to rise globally (Standish, 2014), practical applications have led to the development of various language learning materials, such as coursebooks or digital platforms (Bááth, 2020;Tomlinson, 2008) and the design of L2 educational programs and curricula (Hinkel, 2005;Macalister & Nation, 2019).
In this line, transfer of research findings to L2 pedagogy is key for several reasons. As highlighted by Pastor Cesteros (2000), linguistic training and knowledge of grammatical theory are essential for effective L2 teaching. Similarly, Hernando Velasco and Santos Gargallo (2018) argue that teaching must be informed by research, and that knowledge gained through research can inform educational proposals. Brucart (2005) also stresses the importance of linguistic training for L2 teachers, stating that it is necessary for interpreting learner productions and identifying areas for improvement. These authors highlight the need for a strong connection between research and L2 pedagogy, as this can support the development of effective teaching practices and materials, and ultimately, enhance the learning experience of L2 learners. In addition to informing the development of effective teaching practices and materials, research on L2 learning can provide insights into the cognitive and linguistic processes involved in L2 acquisition (Chamot, 2001;Ellis, 2005). This can, as a result, enlighten the design of tailored educational programs and curricula (Long & Doughty, 2011;Purba, 2018) which optimize the learning experience for L2 students.
In line with this, Spanish is a language that has experienced significant growth in recent years. As stated in the most recent edition of the publication El español en el mundo by the Instituto Cervantes (2021), the number of Spanish speakers has increased to 591 million, with a 6 million person increase from the previous year. This places Spanish as the second most widely spoken language by native speakers, trailing only behind Mandarin Chinese, with 493 million speakers. Furthermore, Spanish is the third most studied language worldwide, with 24 million people studying Spanish as a foreign language. These statistics highlight the increasing demand for Spanish and the need for effective teaching methods to accommodate this growth. The growing popularity of Spanish as a language of communication, commerce, and cultural exchange highlights the importance of providing high-quality Spanish language education to meet the needs of a rapidly expanding global community of Spanish speakers.
Metalinguistic reflection, or the conscious awareness and analysis of language, has been shown to have a positive impact on L2 learning (Hu, 2002;Norris & Ortega, 2000;Pastor Cesteros, 2005;Perales Ugarte, 2004;Spada, 1997). For instance, it can facilitate learner autonomy and enable self-correction of language use (Pastor Cesteros, 2005, pp. 641-643). The importance of metalinguistic reflection in L2 learning is not a return to traditional methods such as grammar-translation, in which grammatical elements are learned in isolation without any connection to communicative practice (Long, 1991). Instead, it is part of a task-based approach that emphasizes the role of grammar in communication and the importance of the learner's attention to the linguistic form in a context of communicative language teaching (Long, 1991). This approach differs from methods that focus on form without considering use (e.g., grammartranslation, audio-linguistic methods) or those that prioritize meaning and comprehension over grammar (e.g., natural approach).
Metalinguistic reflection can support L2 learners in their efforts to learn and use complex linguistic forms such as verbs of affection, by helping them to analyze and manipulate linguistic knowledge about the form, function, and meaning of these verbs in various contexts (Martín-Gascón, Llopis-García & Alonso-Aparicio, in press). In this regard, cognitive linguistics has provided valuable insights into the study of psych verbs, or verbs that express mental states, changes of state, or psychological processes (Jackendoff, 1990;Levin, 1993). In particular, psych verbs or verbs of affection (e.g., ['to like'], ['to please'], gustar, ['to bother'], molestar) have been found to pose difficulties for learners, particularly English speakers learning L2 Spanish (González, 1998;Marras & Cadierno, 2008;Mayoral-Hernández, 2012;Montrul, 1997aMontrul, , 1997b. This is due to the conflict between the natural prominence of the syntactic object (semantic experiencer) and the subject (stimulus) in Spanish psych-verb constructions (Talmy, 2000). Talmy's (2000) and Langacker's (1999) concepts of salience or foregrounding and profiling of certain components of meaning can help explain the variations in the lexicalization of emotions and the highlighting of different participant roles in different languages. Through this framework, it is possible to examine how these linguistic constructions conceptualize and encode emotions in the lexicon and grammar of a language, and to consider the role of semantic roles in L2 instruction rather than purely morpho-syntactic constraints. By providing a systematic explanation of the relationship between conceptual structure and linguistic representation, cognitive linguistics can support the motivated, form-meaning connections that are beneficial for L2 learning.
A more traditional approach to teaching psych verbs in an L2 such as Spanish tends to prioritize accuracy of form and rule learning, often using mechanical exercises to facilitate grammar acquisition. This approach, referred to as the notional-functional approach, is characterized by the presentation of descriptive rules and lists of usage and context in textbooks (Llopis- García & Hijazo-Gascón, 2019;Llopis-García, Real Espinosa & Ruiz Campillo, 2012;Mayoral-Hernández, 2012). In contrast, a cognitive linguistics-based approach to teaching psych verbs considers how these verbs are used and understood by native speakers of the language and aims to provide learners with a more comprehensive understanding of the cognitive processes that these verbs describe. This approach would likely involve an exploration of the conceptual and experiential foundations of these verbs, as well as how they are used in different contexts and with various verb complements. As a result, L2 learners may be able to gain a more nuanced understanding of psych verbs and how they are used in the target language, leading ultimately to a better understanding and a more accurate use of these verbs. Catoira (2008) explored the grammatical presentation of the verb gustar in 10 L2 Spanish textbooks used in college programs in the USA. The author concluded that textbooks can sometimes be a barrier between L2 instructors and students and called for a communicative approach. She suggested introducing this verb at an appropriate time when learners are familiar with grammar, and in a clear and understandable way. In her conclusions, she also stressed the importance of considering cultural and contextual aspects. The author called on editors and researchers to take this into account for facilitating language learning. Domínguez Hervás and Rodríguez Varela (2020) presented an alternative approach to teaching Spanish verbs of affection using metalinguistic images to avoid the view of language as based on patterns and automatisms. In their conclusions, they express that a purely communicative method is not as efficient as expected, but it is also not necessary to systematize grammar and guide students towards memorization. The authors advocate for an approach that makes students aware of the need to understand sentences with psych verbs as a set of significant elements. This opens the door for different possibilities that language offers to express reality.
In a similar vein, two studies by Martín-Gascón (2020 examined the inclusion and usage of verbs of affection with experiencer as subject and experiencer as object in 36 L2 Spanish textbooks, covering proficiency levels from beginner to low-intermediate (A1, A2 and B1 according to the CEFR). Results from quantitative and qualitative analyses showed a lack of systematic inclusion of these constructions and significant variation in the contents assigned to each level. Findings revealed a communicative approach that disregarded cognitive linguistics parameters such as explicit reflection, grammar motivated by semantics, or pragmatic and discourse factors included in the change of meaning of elements, among others. In addition, the author found that negative emotions conveyed by psych verbs were reserved for higher levels of proficiency, with only positive verbs appearing at the A1-A2 levels (primarily gustar 'to like', encantar 'to love', and interesar 'to interest'. While previous scholarship has examined the phenomenon of psych verbs from both theoretical and applied perspectives, with a greater emphasis placed on the former, there remains a need for further research that aims to transfer these findings to the domain of L2 pedagogy. In the light of the foregoing, the aim of this article is twofold. First, this study aims to show the different linguistic theories manifested in L2 Spanish textbooks used to teach psych verbs. Second, based on results, it aims to offer pedagogical examples of the ways in which cognitive linguistics can be a beneficial approach in the teaching and learning of psych verbs. We start out from two hypotheses: most textbooks in the market use a notional-functional approach which does not favor the learning of psych verbs (H1) and a cognitive linguistics approach has the potential to be a valuable tool to acquire the complex psych-verb construction in L2 Spanish (H2). To do so, this article is structured as follows. First, the methodology followed to analyze the theoretical approaches that underlie explanations for psych verbs will be presented. Second, the Spanish textbooks evaluated will be introduced. Third, the results will be reviewed in light of our two hypotheses. Finally, a discussion of findings and pedagogical implications of integrating cognitive linguistics principles in the teaching of the psych-verb construction will follow.

METHODOLOGY
The method used was rooted in an applied linguistics methodology, utilizing an exploratory, quantitative, and interpretive approach. This methodology allowed to combine different research techniques and gain a comprehensive understanding of the inclusion of psych verbs in Spanish textbooks. Using a non-experimental method, qualitative data were gathered from the textbook's lexical items and subjected to a simple statistical analysis to objectively measure the results. Data were then further examined through an interpretive analysis. The qualitative analysis was conducted on the basis of a template (Martín-Gascón, 2020). This guide incorporated 20 criteria inspired and adapted from research on applied cognitive, communicative and operational linguistics (Alhmoud & Castañeda Castro, 2015;Bielak & Pawlak, 2013;Newby, 2015;Ruiz Campillo, 2005).

Template for the analysis
A template adapted from Martín-Gascón (2020, 2021) that outlined a series of cognitive and communicative criteria was used ( Table 1). The cognitive and communicative parameters provided insight into the methodological stance of each textbook with regards to the target construction. This was supplemented by an examination of the approach used in the textbooks, the grammatical treatment, a comparison with the other analyzed textbooks, and the inclusion of descriptive and cognitivecommunicative examples.

Simple lexicon
Grammar motivated by underlying semantics

L2 Spanish textbooks
Seven L2 Spanish textbooks geared towards adult learners and aligned with levels A1, A2, and B1 of the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) were examined ( Table 2). The selection of A1-B1 level was based on the assumption that it is crucial to incorporate the study of the expression of emotions at the initial stages of language acquisition. The textbooks chosen for this study belonged to reputable publishers within the field of L2 Spanish (i.e., Difusión, Edinumen, and Anaya).  The selection of textbooks was based on two main criteria: i) the diversity of approaches, and ii) their prevalence in universities in the United States and Europe. In order to select units per level and per textbook that potentially focused on the expression of emotion, factors such as the title of the unit (e.g., Enfado o de buen humor ['Anger or in a good mood']), were considered for their illustrative power and potential relevance to the study of emotions and verbs of affection. Other criteria were pondered, such as type of subject: one that possibly incorporates the expression of emotion with the constructions under study (e.g., experiences, gastronomy, illnesses). Furthermore, the functional and lexical-grammatical content of the units was examined to identify those that were most relevant to the study of emotion. Finally, the screening process was supplemented by the selection of units that included emotion key words such as sentimientos ['feelings']. The final sample (Appendix A) consisted of 30 textbooks (9 for A1 level, 10 for A2, and 11 for B1) and a total of 61 units (17 for A1 level, 19 for A2, and 25 for B1) ( Figure 1). 1 It was expected that with this sample the analysis would provide valuable insights on the treatment of psych verbs in L2 Spanish textbooks in the market.

RESULTS
This section presents the most relevant results from an exhaustive quantitative and qualitative analysis of the seven A1-B1 L2 Spanish textbooks (61 units and 30 textbooks) under study. The examination sheds light on the different approaches to teaching the psych-verb construction in textbooks. First, we investigated the treatment of emotions with regards to their connotation and the frequency of the psych-verb construction by unit, level, and textbook. Emotions were classified into three categories: positive, negative, and neutral. The latter refers to emotions that depending on the experiential and linguistic context may have a positive or negative connotation (e.g., Me sorprende tu actitud 'I am surprised by your attitude'). The taxonomy of emotions (Martín-Gascón, 2020, 2021) allowed to examine the presence or absence of emotions by unit, level, and manual. Additionally, we examined the incorporation of cognitive and communicative components within each manual. Our hypothesis was that these constructions are approached primarily from a lexical-grammatical perspective, without considering the underlying semantics.

Aula Internacional
The first textbook analyzed (Appendix B) did not introduce verbs of affection to express negative emotions until level A2 (Table 3). It was especially at B1 level that more negative emotions were addressed. Likes and interests were worked on at all three levels. The manual Textbooks followed the guidelines of the Curricular Plan of the Cervantes Institute (PCIC) at levels A1 and A2, with the exception of the emotion of aversion, whose expression was not presented to learners until level B1. Likewise, affection, pleasure and amusement, and negative emotions such as shame, fear and worry were only included in A2, while the PCIC does not consider them until level B1. Also, apart from likes and interests and admiration and pride, the manual did not present any other positive or neutral emotions at B1 level and focused mainly on negative ones. The number of cases of this type of construction amounted to 242 (A1, n=97; A2, n=54; B1, n=91) (see Figure 2).   Aula Internacional diverged from the task-based approach, opting instead for an action-oriented approach which positions the learner as a social agent who must acquire the cognitive and emotional resources necessary to perform tasks within a specific context or field of action. This approach aligned with the notional-functional (PPP -presentation, practice, production) approach, which is considered more traditional, but nonetheless communicative in nature as it places emphasis on meaning. It was noteworthy that this textbook, while it could be situated within the communicative approach, did not use a task management language throughout the didactic units and thus could not be classified as a task-based approach. This task management language is a crucial component in achieving a sequence based on a task-based approach, as it prepares the learner to carry out the final product or task and demonstrates how to accomplish it.
The manual followed a notional-functional program, as it typically presented language samples in typical contexts understood as models; forms were described according to the context of utterance; and the objective was to primarily develop communicative competence. With regards to the grammatical content, traditional activities predominated, but the student was encouraged to reflect on the language, supplementing gaps with grammatical elements provided. The topic of emotions and feelings was not given a dedicated unit, though it was addressed in different moments throughout the manual. The only unit where it was dealt with more explicitly was unit 9 of level B1. The manual is communicative in nature, incorporating playful images, authentic situations in typical contexts, and accessible metalanguage. However, it did not incorporate a task management language. In terms of cognitive factors, while it promoted language reflection, it was characterized by being more syntactic than semantic in nature, with emphasis on form rather than meaning and pragmatics. Target expressions were systematized according to verb inflection and grammatical persons, although at B1 level a more cognitive explanation of some psych verbs was provided.

Bitácora
Bitácora (Appendix C) engaged with the concepts of taste, interest, and desire at the A1 level and introduced negative emotions, such as nervousness, using expressions like me estresa ('it gets me stressed'), which is not included in the PCIC until the B1 level (Table 4). At the A2 level, Bitácora revisited the concepts of taste, interest, and desire and presented the concept of preference for the first time. However, it departed from the PCIC by not addressing physical sensations and aversion. These emotions were reintroduced in the B1 level when examining the subjunctive, along with other emotions that appeared for the first time, such as affection, joy and satisfaction, surprise and strangeness, embarrassment, boredom, and anger and indignation. In terms of the number of cases, Bitácora accumulated 266 cases (A1, n=80; A2, n=31; B1, n=155) (see Figure 3).   Bitácora employs a lexical, contentdriven, and action-oriented approach, which represents a recent version of the communicative approach. It goes beyond a purely task-based approach, and it is more closely aligned with the cognitive approach. The manual presents grammar from a lexical and innovative perspective, and the interface is visually appealing. With regards to the grammatical aspect of the target construction, the textbook endeavours to integrate lexis and grammar in a cohesive manner. The target expressions are both grammar and lexicon, and structures are provided in a gradual, contextualized, and guided fashion. At the beginning of each unit, the expressions are initially introduced implicitly. The systematization of the expressions occurs in the middle of the unit, in contrast to other manuals analyzed here that present grammar at the beginning.
In terms of the treatment of emotions, there were several units that specifically addressed emotions in the A1 level. However, at the A2 level, only unit 0 dealt with emotions explicitly, with no mention of them in the index of other units. In the B1 level, unit 10 specifically focused on emotions, though it did not employ a cognitive approach in its examination. At the lower levels, when expressions of emotions were first introduced, they were studied from a more cognitive perspective. Bitácora alluded to the experiencer and stimulus (of the latter referring to it as "the thing that produces the feeling"), but only introduced this explanation for the verb gustar 'to like'; for the rest of emotions, it presents its linguistic representations as "verbs like the verb gustar".

Campus sur
Campus sur (Appendix D) incorporated the emotions of like, interest, and preference starting from level A1. Yet, it was not until level A2 that it introduced the emotion of desire, in accordance with the guidelines set forth by the PCIC. Additionally, the textbook included negative emotions such as aversion, in line with the PCIC's guidelines. However, it did not address physical sensations or preference. Despite this, the manual included e 3. Bitácora. Number of psych-verb construction cases per connotation and level Bitácora employs a lexical, content-driven, and action-oriented approach, which ents a recent version of the communicative approach. It goes beyond a purely ased approach, and it is more closely aligned with the cognitive approach. The l presents grammar from a lexical and innovative perspective, and the interface is   Campus sur employs a task-based approach and emphasizes the authentic use of language and linguistic reflection to present and work on the expression of emotions. It also places a particular emphasis on the pictorial value of the activities. In terms of grammatical treatment, it takes a more cognitive approach than other manuals analyzed in the study, as it differentiates between "action verbs" and "psychological verbs" that elicit a reaction or effect in someone. The manual addresses other emotions implicitly through text and memorization lists in the grammatical explanation. As a communicative manual, it generally meets communicative criteria and is closer to the cognitive approach presenting grammar from a more lexical and innovative perspective.
The expressions of emotions were introduced in a gradual and contextualized manner and in a guided way. At the beginning of the unit, these expressions were introduced implicitly both in instructions and in the corpus. Language models that included expressions of taste and interest and desire were proposed, such as me gusta el ceviche ('I like ceviche') and me gustaría ver Amores Perros ('I would like to see Amores Perros'). However, expressions of emotions did not appear as explicitly in the text throughout the manual, with a smaller number of tokens introduced in the target units. When expressions were introduced in relation to the vocabulary needed to talk about interests in the Hispanic world, students were asked to produce them without having been systematized beforehand. The manual did not provide explicit instruction of the target structures at the beginning, but rather presented them in a guided manner. The cognitive approach was first introduced on page 55, where a distinction was made between prototypical verbs and verbs of affection ( Figure 5). The latter were explained as structures that provoked a reaction or effect on someone, and it was noted that it was the indirect complement that received the action. However, the explanation was somewhat simplified.

Etapas
In the textbook Etapas (Appendix E), a broad range of emotions were addressed at the A1 level, however, there was minimal exploration of any one emotion in particular, with the exception of physical sensations (Table 6). Additionally, at level A1, the manual only covered four cases of the expression me gustaría ('I would like to'). The A2 level presented a more systematic approach, covering emotions that were consistent with the PCIC's recommendations, except for the inclusion of desire and aversion. Conversely, the advanced level (B1) showed minimal examination of negative emotions. The textbook adhered to the PCIC's framework by gradually increasing the number of emotions covered as the level progressed. The number of cases for this textbook were recorded as 145 cases, with A1 level having 4 cases, A2 level having 64 cases, and B1 level having 77 cases (see Figure 6).

Etapas
follows an action-oriented approach, but it is not task-based per se. It is communicative in nature (i.e., there is even a section at the end for the learner to reflect on what has been acquired; the metalanguage is clear, interpersonal, and social values are integrated in each unit), but the cognitive Etapas follows an action-oriented approach, but it is not task-based per se communicative in nature (i.e., there is even a section at the end for the learner to r on what has been acquired; the metalanguage is clear, interpersonal, and social v are integrated in each unit), but the cognitive component is barely incorpo Grammar is approached from a more traditional viewpoint, and although systematized, it takes on a secondary role. It still maintains an unnatural div between form and meaning, thus it does not connect grammar with communication the psych-verb construction, the student is asked to observe, induce the rule produce, without focus on form or explicit reflection. These are approached fr more syntactic than semantic perspective and there is no reflection with the stu native language. For instance, on page 13 (unit 1, A2.1), the construction me gus Positive component is barely incorporated. Grammar is approached from a more traditional viewpoint, and although it is systematized, it takes on a secondary role. It still maintains an unnatural division between form and meaning, thus it does not connect grammar with communication. For the psych-verb construction, the student is asked to observe, induce the rule, and produce, without focus on form or explicit reflection. These are approached from a more syntactic than semantic perspective and there is no reflection with the student's native language. For instance, on page 13 (unit 1, A2.1), the construction me gusta ('I like') was introduced for the first time ( Figure 7). The construction was systematized in a way that is far removed from a cognitive approach: a table that separated the elements, but not significantly and an explanation of the different degrees to express likes.

Gente hoy
The manual Gente hoy (Appendix F) was observed to have a limited scope in terms of addressing the expression of emotions (see Table 7). Specifically, it only addressed the expression of taste, interest, and preference at level A1 and did not include the expression of desires, an emotion that is already addressed by the PCIC at A1 level. Furthermore, at A2 level, the textbook reiterated some of the emotions that had been previously presented at level A1, deviating from the guidelines set forth by the PCIC by not including the expression of desire, physical sensations, and aversion. As a result, the manual did not systematically cover the expression of neutral and negative emotions until level B1. Additionally, Gente hoy introduced expressions of preference that were not present in the PCIC such as me viene bien/mal ('it suits me/does not suit me'). In terms of the number of cases, Gente hoy accumulated a total of 205 cases (A1, n=95; A2, n=20; B1, n=90) as shown in Figure 8. A1   Positive work, context, and language reflection. The collaborative work is enhanced through the processing, contextualization, and reflection of meta-forms. However, the target construction is not approached from a cognitive perspective, and even the incorporation of the behavioral model (stimulus-response) can be seen in some stages of the sequencing. Verbs of affection are explicitly systematized by focusing on the inflected verbal forms, while the implicit perception of meta-forms and their meanings is enhanced.
There was no dedicated grammar section in the unit for this type of verbs. Instead, grammatical structures were introduced gradually and contextually, in a guided manner. At the onset of the unit, these expressions were first presented implicitly through instructions and in the body of the text. They were presented in model forms, such as Las cosas que me interesan son... ('Things that interest me are…'). As the necessary vocabulary for discussing travel was introduced, students were asked to express their preferences using the provided model structures, e.g., a mí me interesa ('I am interested in'). This followed an inductive method, known as the Zone of Proximal Development in Vygotsky's theory (1978), where grammatical knowledge is constructed progressively and inductively, gradually discovered, rather than being approached in an explicit manner. In the middle of the unit, a grammatical explanation was presented, which primarily focused on the systematization of the inflected verbal forms in different grammatical persons. At the end of the textbook, a more detailed grammar was presented, with illustrations, metalanguage, and simple vocabulary; however, it remained not cognitively oriented.

Método de español
Método de español (Appendix G) demonstrated a high degree of coherence with the emotions included in the PCIC (Table  8). In the highest level examined, B1, there was a balance between the use of positive and negative emotions, with the latter being primarily introduced at this advanced level and approached tentatively in earlier levels.
With regard to the linguistic expressions that appear throughout the manual, there was a decrease in their usage as the level increased. Hence, in terms of the number of cases, Método de español accumulated a total of 422 cases (A1, n=285; A2, n=79; B1, n=58), as shown in Figure 9. A1   Método de español focuses on the student and emphasizes communication and pragmatics. Each unit is structured around four sections: contexts, which introduce a topic and provide real-world examples of language usage in immersion settings; observation, learning, and remembering, which involve conceptualizing and reconstructing linguistic concepts and rules to promote inference and reflection; practice, which includes formal exercises to Positive automate and internalize language usage and rules; and communication, which involves authentic, free-form communication to apply and update previously studied content.
Método de español utilizes authentic materials, contextualized examples, and formal and communicative practice to encourage active student involvement and linguistic awareness. The grammar instruction is presented in a way that is in service of communication, and the sequencing of activities progresses from more guided to more open-ended tasks to foster this awareness effectively. The final tasks are designed to include elements of gap-filling and negotiation of meaning to further promote student engagement and address their needs. It thus fosters a more active role in the learning process, so that students become conscious learners of the underlying grammatical principles of the target language. This active involvement is facilitated by the incorporation of communication into the study of grammar, as formal grammar tasks require the student to reflect, analyze, and engage in discourse regarding grammatical rules. Through the implementation of short tasks of guided practice, leading to increasingly autonomous tasks, linguistic awareness is developed, even if the pace of acquisition is slower. Ultimately, final tasks that consider information gaps and the negotiation of meaning are employed to promote student involvement and an active role in the learning process, while also catering to the needs and playful nature of learners. With regards to the target structures, they were presented through a wealth of input, repeated frequently, first in an inductive and implicit manner, later systematized in the "Observe and learn" section, and subsequently practiced in a more guided and subsequently autonomous manner in the "Practice" section.

Nuevo prisma
At A1 level, Nuevo prisma (Appendix H) only encompasses the expression of personal preferences, interests, and physical sensations, as outlined in Table 9. The latter topic is revisited in the subsequent level in conjunction with the remaining emotions covered by PCIC in A2, with the exception of aversion. Furthermore, at A2 level, new emotions, such as security and confidence, are introduced and studied, and at B1 level, envy is introduced as a topic of study. Notably, at B1 level, the manual includes a limited treatment of admiration, pride, and disappointment, which are not addressed by PCIC until B2 level. In terms of the scope of emotions covered, Nuevo prisma demonstrates a proportional increase in the number of expressions related to both positive and negative emotions. In terms of the number of cases, Nuevo prisma accumulated a total of 178 cases (A1, n=42; A2, n=40; B1, n=96) ( Figure 10).  Nuevo prisma describes itself as a communicative approach to language learning that aligns with the CEFR. The manual emphasizes the development of communicative competence and follows a PPP structure. The primary objective of this approach is to equip learners with the ability to interact linguistically in various communicative situations. However, it should be noted that the manual does not adhere to a task-based approach, which advocates for learning the language through real and meaningful situations. Instead, Nuevo prisma focuses on controlled practice that is adapted to typical communicative environments and is delimited by a specific use of the language in a given communicative situation. Unlike, for example, Gente hoy and Aula internacional, it presents grammar in a more systematic way, being closer to Campus sur and Bitácora, as it differentiates between prototypical verbs and verbs of affection.
Nuevo prisma presented an explanation for the emotion of taste and hate using a dynamics of forces approach. The manual specifically highlighted the person who exerts the action and the same behavior associated with it. Additionally, the manual discussed how verbs of affection provoke a reaction or an effect on the indirect object and that it is this indirect object that receives the action. The use of arrows and bodies was also employed in a visually impactful manner. However, like other manuals, Nuevo prisma was limited in its explanation of emotions, only providing a cognitive perspective on the emotion of taste. Furthermore, it is worth noting that Nuevo prisma, similar to Bitácora, encouraged contrastive reflection with the mother tongue when explaining grammatical concepts.

DISCUSSION
This study aimed to analyze the approaches used in seven L2 Spanish textbooks in the presentation and systematization of the psych-verb construction from A1 to B1 levels. Based on our teaching experience with these manuals and previous research (e.g., Catoira, 2008;Domínguez Hervás & Rodríguez Varela, 2020;Llopis-García & Hijazo-Gascón, 2019;Llopis-García, Real Espinosa & Ruiz Campillo, 2012;Martín-Gascón, 2020Mayoral-Hernández, 2012), we hypothesized that these textbooks would apply a notional-functional approach to teaching verbs of affection. However, considering that textbooks are one of the primary materials to which both instructors and learners are exposed in an instructional context, we also posited that this type of approach may not be effective in helping learners acquire this already difficult construction (González, 1998;Marras & Cadierno, 2008;Mayoral-Hernández, 2012;Montrul, 1997aMontrul, , 1997b.
To test these hypotheses, a qualitative and quantitative analysis was conducted on the target construction in a total of 61 units across the seven textbooks. The findings of this analysis revealed that instruction of these verbs in L2 Spanish tended to follow a more traditional approach, focusing on syntactic structure, usage contexts, and practice exercises that emphasized a correct/incorrect dichotomy. Explanations often concentrated on formal aspects and categorizations through the syntactic properties of psych verbs, with a focus on pattern recognition, syntactic combinations, and the proper placement of elements within the construction.
For the quantitative analysis, the results from Aula internacional, Bitácora, Campus sur, Etapas, Gente hoy, Método de español and Nuevo prisma showed that there was a variation in the number of cases for each level (A1, A2 and B1).
Aula Internacional and Bitácora presented similar numbers of cases, with 242 and 266 respectively. However, the distribution among the different levels was different, with A1 having 97 and 80 cases respectively. Campus sur accumulated a total of 226 cases, with a similar distribution as Aula internacional and Bitácora, yet with a smaller number in the A2 level, with 26 cases. Etapas recorded 145 cases, with a higher number of cases in the B1 level, with 77 cases. Gente hoy accumulated a total of 205 cases, with a similar distribution as Etapas, but with a smaller number of cases in the A2 level, with only 20 cases. Método de español accumulated the highest number of cases, with a total of 422 cases, with most cases in the A1 level (285 cases). Nuevo prisma accumulated a total of 178 cases, with a similar distribution to the others, but with a smaller number of cases in the A1 level, with 42 cases.
The primary conclusions drawn from a closer examination of the textbook philosophy and approach to language, and to psych verbs specifically, indicated that a communicative methodology was utilized in their instruction of the Spanish language. Nonetheless, variations in techniques were evident when addressing the topic of the psych-verb construction.
Aula Internacional adopted an actionoriented approach, positioning the learner as a social agent who must acquire the necessary cognitive and emotional resources to perform tasks within a specific context or field of action. This approach aligned with the notionalfunctional (PPP) approach, which is considered more traditional but communicative in nature, as it places emphasis on meaning. However, it was observed that this textbook did not use a task management language throughout the didactic units where verbs of affection were included and thus could not be classified as a task-based approach. Bitácora employed a lexical, content-driven, and action-oriented approach, which represents a recent version of the communicative approach. It goes beyond a purely task-based method, and it is more closely aligned with the cognitive approach. The manual presented grammar from a lexical and innovative perspective and the interface was visually appealing. With regards to the grammatical aspect in the target construction, the textbook integrated lexis and grammar in a cohesive manner. The structures were provided in a gradual, contextualized, and guided fashion.
Campus sur and Nuevo prisma employed a task-based approach and emphasized the authentic use of language and linguistic reflection to present and work on the expression of emotions. They also placed a particular emphasis on the pictorial value of the activities. In terms of grammatical treatment, they took a more cognitive approach than other manuals analyzed in the study, as they differentiated between "action verbs" and "psychological verbs" that elicit a reaction or effect in someone. Etapas followed an action-oriented approach, similar to that of Bitácora. It also aligned with the notional-functional (PPP) approach and emphasized the development of communicative competence. However, it did not incorporate a task management language and was characterized by being more syntactic than semantic in nature, with emphasis on form rather than meaning and pragmatics.
In Gente hoy, the target construction was not approached from a cognitive perspective, and even the incorporation of the behavioral model (stimulus-response) could be seen in some stages of the sequencing. Verbs of affection were explicitly systematized by focusing on the inflected verbal forms, while the implicit perception of meta-forms and their meanings was enhanced. There was no dedicated grammar section in the unit for this type of verbs. Instead, grammatical structures were introduced gradually and contextually, in a guided manner. At the onset of the unit, these expressions were first presented implicitly through instructions and in the body of the text. They were presented in model form. Método de español followed a notional-functional program, as it typically presented language samples in typical contexts understood as models; forms were described according to the context of utterance. The objective was to primarily develop communicative competence. The manual was communicative in nature, incorporating playful images, authentic situations in typical contexts, and accessible metalanguage.
Overall, results indicated that the didactic sequence in the textbooks did not prioritize the relationship between linguistic structure and meaning or communicative intent. The main findings of the seven textbooks evidenced a communicative method in their approach to teaching Spanish. However, the textbooks differed in their specific methodology, with some, such as Aula internacional and Método de español, taking a more traditional notionalfunctional approach, while others, such as Bitácora and Campus sur, taking a more cognitive or action-oriented one. Additionally, the textbooks varied in their emphasis on the treatment of emotions and feelings, with some, such as Bitácora, including explicit units on the topic, while others, such as Aula internacional, only addressing it implicitly. Textbooks also differed in their philosophy for grammar instruction, with some, such as Bitácora, presenting grammar from a lexical and innovative perspective, and others, such as Gente hoy taking a more traditional approach. Overall, the textbooks shared a focus on developing communicative competence, but the specific methods used to achieve this goal varied. These findings are in line with previous studies (Domínguez-Hervás & Rodríguez Varela, 2020;Martín-Gascón, 2020 and suggest that alternative approaches, such as those that prioritize the relationship between linguistic structure and meaning, might be more beneficial for L2 Spanish learners in the acquisition of the psych-verb construction.
As stated in the introduction, previous research has examined the construct of psych verbs, with a predominant focus on theoretical perspectives. Nonetheless, there persists a requirement for additional investigations that endeavor to bridge the gap between theoretical constructs and practical applications in the field of second language pedagogy. This aligns with the second objective of this study: based on our results, to propose pedagogical examples of the ways in which cognitive linguistics can be a beneficial approach in the teaching and learning of psych verbs. The underlying principle of this proposal is the claim that a transfer of knowledge between research and L2 didactics is crucial.

Pedagogical proposal for psych verbs in L2 Spanish
This pedagogical proposal is based on a communicative-cognitive approach, which emphasizes the importance of the expression of emotions in language learning. This approach is in line with the works of Bielak and Pawlak (2013), Gramática Básica del Estudiante del Español -GBE (Alonso Raya et al., 2011) andNewby (2012) and breaks away from the traditional formal view of grammar found in most reviewed textbooks. Instead, it emphasizes the cognitive principles of learning and the importance of understanding the different possibilities that language offers to express reality.
To achieve this, a variety of strategies can be included in the materials, such as explicit grammatical reflection, which should be promoted during the presentation, execution, correction, and discussion of the materials. This allows students to understand and internalize the target linguistic structure, and to distinguish between the different uses of this structure. Additionally, semantic motivation in grammar needs to be emphasized, and pragmatic and discourse factors to be included in the change of meaning. Furthermore, a clear and accessible metalanguage should be used, along with pictorial illustrations, which are designed to support and facilitate the comprehension and processing of grammatical meanings. A playful and humorous factor can also help create a relaxed work environment and promoting a positive and affective grammatical experience. The tasks must be challenging and allow for error, to prevent fossilization, which can occur when students do not have the opportunity to encounter and solve problems.
From the perspective of cognitive linguistics, how speakers conceptualize an emotional state affects the way it is expressed in language (Talmy, 2000). In this regard, when understanding that issues in L2 learning derive from specificities in the conceptualization of each language (i.e., how every discourse community experiences and perceives the world, and therefore how they communicate about it), a contrastive pedagogical strategy is to be advocated. Since learners tend to transfer from their native language to the L2 (Boers, 2013;Cadierno, 2008), raising awareness of the grammatical variances between their L1 and L2 presents a pedagogical advantage and seems a rather necessary exercise for a correct assimilation of these difficult constructions.
The cognitive linguistics notions of 'salience' and 'valence' regarding psych verbs can shed light on the conceptualization of emotion (Talmy, 2000, p. 98). When describing an affective situation, Talmy (2000) highlights the lexical differences in verbs of affection, which are motivated by distinct semantic and referential roles in a given episode and whose use varies according to the salience or focus of attention, i.e., if the salient aspect is a quality of the stimulus or if, otherwise, it is the state of the experiencer (see Figure 11). In this manner, when the speaker utters the sentence Me divierte mi perro ('My dog amuses me'), her amusement refers to the characteristics of an external stimulus (e.g., her dog being energetic, playful, and sociable). When the speaker utters the subject-experiencer sentence me divierto con mi perro ('I have fun with my dog'), the origin or cause of the emotional experience is intrinsic (e.g., she likes spending time with her dog since she enjoys playing fetch with him, going for walks, and interacting with people and other dogs) (Figure 12).

CONCLUSION
The role of psych verbs in L2 discourse has been widely recognized, yet their application in L2 instruction remains underdeveloped. This highlights the need for further exploration of the teaching and learning of psych verbs in L2 contexts, and the development of pedagogical The present study has provided insights into the type of input received by L2 Spanish learners in terms of verbs of affection in commercially available textbooks. The analysis of seven manuals (Aula Internacional, Bitácora, Campus sur, Etapas, Gente hoy, Método de español and Nuevo prisma) revealed that while all materials adhered to the classical communicative paradigm, none of them approached psych verbs from a cognitive perspective at initial levels and across the entire emotional spectrum. This lack of attention to grammatical meaning and systematization of these linguistic forms reduces them to their most formal aspects and disregards the changes in meaning that occur depending on whether the focus is on the stimulus or the experiencer, resulting in a rote and artificial treatment of the grammar of emotions.
To address this issue, a pedagogical approach based on a communicative-cognitive paradigm was proposed, structured into four phases of learning. The materials promoted explicit grammatical reflection, semantic motivation, and the use of a variety of strategies, including clear metalanguage, pictorial illustrations, and humor. The tasks were designed to be challenging and allowed for error, with the aim of raising students' awareness of the significance of sentence elements, rather than completely eliminating errors.
These findings emphasize the importance of establishing a connection between the communicative and cognitive paradigms in the teaching of psych verbs. Without a proper understanding of grammar, effective communication cannot be achieved. In future studies, it would be beneficial to employ classroom observation techniques and teacher research to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the input received by L2 learners in an instructional setting.